Before Confederation
In the 1860s, British North America was a group of separate colonies: the Province of Canada (today’s Ontario and Quebec), Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and British Columbia. A huge area called Rupert’s Land was controlled by the Hudson’s Bay Company. First Nations, Inuit and Métis lived across all these lands.
Why unite?
Several reasons pushed the colonies toward Confederation:
| Reason | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Political deadlock | in the Province of Canada, English and French sections were evenly balanced, so governments kept collapsing |
| Fear of the United States | after the U.S. Civil War, the U.S. had a large army; some Americans talked of taking over British territory; Fenian raids (1866) attacked from the U.S. |
| Railways and trade | a railway linking the colonies would help trade, especially after the U.S. ended a trade agreement (Reciprocity) in 1866 |
| Westward expansion | leaders wanted to expand west before American settlers moved in |
| Britain’s wishes | Britain wanted the colonies to defend and pay for themselves |
The conferences
- Charlottetown Conference (September 1864): Maritime leaders met to discuss a Maritime union. Delegates from the Province of Canada came and proposed a larger union.
- Québec Conference (October 1864): delegates wrote the 72 Resolutions, the plan for the new country.
- London Conference (1866–67): final details were worked out in Britain.
The delegates are known as the Fathers of Confederation. Key figures included John A. Macdonald, George-Étienne Cartier, George Brown, Charles Tupper, Samuel Leonard Tilley and Thomas D’Arcy McGee. No women and no Indigenous peoples were included in these discussions.
July 1, 1867
The British Parliament passed the British North America Act. On July 1, 1867, the Dominion of Canada was born with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. John A. Macdonald became the first prime minister.
The Act created a federal system: a central Parliament in Ottawa and provincial governments, each with its own powers. It protected French language rights in some institutions and religious school rights.
Not everyone agreed. Many Nova Scotians opposed joining, and Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland said no at first.
Building the country
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1869–70 | Canada acquires Rupert’s Land; the Red River Resistance |
| 1870 | Manitoba joins; Northwest Territories created |
| 1871 | British Columbia joins, after being promised a railway |
| 1873 | Prince Edward Island joins; the North-West Mounted Police is created |
| 1871–1921 | the numbered treaties are signed |
| 1885 | Canadian Pacific Railway completed; North-West Resistance |
| 1898 | Yukon becomes a territory during the Klondike Gold Rush |
| 1905 | Alberta and Saskatchewan join |
| 1949 | Newfoundland joins |
The Red River Resistance
When Canada acquired Rupert’s Land without consulting the people living there, the Métis of Red River, led by Louis Riel, formed a provisional government to protect their land, language and rights. Their actions led to the Manitoba Act (1870), creating the province of Manitoba. Riel later led the North-West Resistance of 1885 and was executed for treason, a decision that remains controversial. Today many Canadians honour him as a founder of Manitoba.
The numbered treaties
To open the West for settlement and the railway, the Crown signed numbered treaties with First Nations. Treaties promised reserves, annual payments, schools, farming help and the right to hunt and fish. Many First Nations understood them as agreements to share the land. Many promises were not kept, and these issues continue today.
The Canadian Pacific Railway
The Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) was completed in 1885, when the "last spike" was driven at Craigellachie, British Columbia. It connected the country from east to west and brought settlers to the Prairies. Thousands of Chinese workers built some of the most dangerous sections in BC; many died. After the railway was finished, the government charged a head tax on Chinese immigrants. In 2006, the federal government apologized for the head tax.
Different perspectives
Confederation is often celebrated as Canada’s birth. But it looks different from other perspectives:
- For many Indigenous peoples, Confederation led to the Indian Act, loss of land and residential schools.
- For French Canadians, it brought both protections and ongoing debates about their place in Canada.
- For many Nova Scotians, it was opposed at first.
Try it yourself
- Make a timeline of provinces and territories joining Canada.
- Write a speech for or against Confederation from the view of someone in 1866.
- Explain the Red River Resistance from Louis Riel’s point of view.
- Analyze how the CPR affected settlers, Chinese workers and First Nations.
Quick recap
- Political deadlock, fear of the U.S., railways and Britain’s wishes led to Confederation.
- The Charlottetown, Québec and London conferences planned the union.
- On July 1, 1867, Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick formed Canada.
- Canada grew through new provinces, the numbered treaties and the CPR.
- Confederation has different meanings for different groups.